Because the core of redox reactions, electron switch performs an important position in supplies science and medical remedies [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8]. The theoretical basis of this discipline originated in 1956 when Marcus established the electron switch fee concept, which first quantitatively correlated solvent reorganization power with response kinetics and laid the cornerstone for rational design of electrocatalytic supplies [9]. In 1964, the Hohenberg-Kohn theorem established a mapping relationship between electron density and power functionals, enabling exact calculations of electron switch pathways [10]. In 1985, Sir Harold Kroto’s group recognized fullerene as a high-efficiency electron acceptor, revolutionizing cost switch mechanisms in natural optoelectronic units whereas driving a paradigm shift in nanoscience [11]. Because the daybreak of the twenty first century, novel methods for modulating electron switch pathways have emerged successively. Electron switch entails the motion of electrons between two atoms or different chemical entities, corresponding to molecules. This motion alters the oxidation states of each reactants and is central to the mechanism of redox reactions. There are two major mechanisms of electron switch: outer-sphere electron switch and inner-sphere electron switch. In outer-sphere electron switch, the atoms concerned within the redox course of aren’t related by bridging ligands, permitting for interactions between totally different or the identical chemical substances, with the excellence mendacity of their differing oxidation states [12], [13], [14], [15]. Conversely, inner-sphere electron switch happens when the atoms taking part within the redox response are related by covalent bonds, leading to bridging ligands which may be everlasting [16], [17]. On this occasion, the electron switch is categorized as intramolecular. Nevertheless, most covalent bonds are transient, forming earlier than the electron switch and breaking subsequently, a course of referred to as intermolecular electron switch [18], [19]. Latest years have witnessed essential breakthroughs in regulating electron dynamics at nanoscale interfaces, progressively establishing a complete analysis framework spanning elementary concept to utilized applied sciences. Foundational milestones on this discipline commenced with pioneering work on electrical double layer concept, evolving from the Helmholtz mannequin proposed in 1853 [20] to the “two-step formation mannequin” for dielectric interfaces established by Wang’s group in 2019 [21]. This development has systematically refined the theoretical framework for electron-ion coupling at interfaces. Developments in characterization methods enabled researchers to attain nanoscale visualization of cost switch processes throughout electrocatalysis in 2021 [22], offering novel approaches for in situ imaging and mechanistic probing of electrocatalytic reactions. In dynamic regulation, managed ion migration has been realized by uneven electrical double layer formation modulated between dielectric substrates and liquids [23]. These advances not solely deepen the understanding of interfacial electron switch kinetics but in addition set up a scientific basis for creating high-performance nanoelectronic units, power conversion methods, and bioinspired applied sciences, marking the sector’s transition from elementary exploration towards precision management and gadget integration.
Within the discipline of supplies science, the electron switch mechanism performs an important position in figuring out the core bodily and chemical properties of supplies, together with conductivity, magnetism, and catalytic exercise [24], [25], [26], [27]. In metallic conductive supplies, the electrical discipline power drives the directional migration of free electrons, forming the muse for present and enabling environment friendly transmission and conversion {of electrical} power [28], [29], [30]. The switch of electrons in semiconductor supplies is dictated by their power band construction and might be manipulated utilizing exterior electrical fields, temperature variations, or chemical doping. This manipulation allows the adaptable alteration of their conductive properties, switching between insulating and conducting states. Consequently, this supplies each theoretical and technical foundations for developments in semiconductor digital units [31], [32], [33], [34], [35]. Within the discipline of catalysis science, exact management over the digital construction of the catalyst floor and the optimization of electron switch pathways can speed up chemical response processes. This enhances response selectivity and effectivity, providing new alternatives for power conversion. These developments contribute novel concepts to the fields of environmental safety and chemical synthesis [36], [37], [38], [39], [40]. Electron switch know-how has demonstrated important progress in supplies science, notably within the improvement of biosensors and digital supplies [41], [42], [43], [44], [45], [46]. Molybdenum disulfide contains a layered construction composed of three layers of sulfur-molybdenum-sulfur atoms stacked by van der Waals forces. This distinctive construction empowers it to show outstanding efficiency throughout the electron switch course of, proficiently selling the switch of electrons from biomolecules to electrodes. This notably boosts the sensitivity and response pace of the sensor, supplying extra correct and efficient detection instruments for illness prognosis, environmental monitoring, and different associated functions [47], [48]. Within the discipline of digital supplies, the potential of 2D nanomaterials is substantial. As an illustration, graphene, with its distinctive hexagonal honeycomb lattice construction composed of sp2 hybridized orbitals, reveals outstanding electrical properties. This makes it a super candidate for functions in digital gadget manufacturing and built-in circuit design [49], [50], [51], [52], [53]. At the moment, researchers are investigating the mixing of those 2D nanomaterials into sensible manufacturing processes, with the intention of facilitating technological breakthroughs and advancing industrial upgrades within the digital supplies sector, thereby increasing their software prospects.
Within the discipline of life drugs, electron switch performs a significant position. Scientists skillfully make the most of the electron switch mechanism to design and develop superior supplies with distinctive electron switch properties. As an illustration, by incorporating Se into the Prussian blue (PB) construction, a Se@PB nanoheterojunction was constructed [54]. This not solely optimizes the ratio of Fe2+ to Fe3+ and accelerates the valence state transformation of selenium, but in addition considerably enhances electron switch effectivity by the established Fe2+-Se-Fe3⁺3+ electron switch chain. Consequently, Se@PB reveals wonderful X-ray power conversion and digital transmission capabilities, which markedly enhance the bodily sensitivity of radiotherapy. Electron switch properties not solely occupy a central place in materials science, but in addition are extra profoundly mirrored within the understanding of illness remedy and illness mechanism. Exploration on this discipline has two core ranges, every of which reveals indispensable position of electron switch [55], [56], [57], [58], [59], [60], [61], [62], [63]. Relating to illness remedy, progressive methods primarily based on electron switch mechanisms are demonstrating unprecedented potential. In response to the worldwide problem of most cancers, researchers have successfully interfered with the power metabolism of tumor cells by exactly regulating the electron transport chain, thereby inducing apoptosis in these cells [64], [65]. Within the remedy of neurodegenerative illnesses, the regulation of electron switch has emerged as an important consider bettering affected person outcomes. Scientific changes to electron switch can considerably improve the power provide effectivity of nerve cells whereas successfully mitigating the harm brought on by oxidative stress. This method has opened new avenues for delaying the development of neurodegenerative illnesses [66], [67], [68], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [74], [75], [76]. Moreover, the exploration of illness mechanisms highlights the essential position of digital metastases. These processes are elementary to important life actions, together with mobile respiration and DNA restore, and are very important for sustaining regular mobile operate [77]. Throughout mobile respiration, the orderly switch of electrons supplies the mandatory power to maintain life. Disruptions on this course of can result in mobile dysfunction, doubtlessly leading to severe situations corresponding to neurodegenerative and cardiovascular illnesses [78], [79], [80], [81], [82], [83]. Equally, within the context of DNA restore, electron switch performs an important position. When DNA harm happens, the electron switch mechanism initiates restore processes to make sure the secure transmission of genetic info. Disruptions in electron switch can impede well timed DNA restore, leading to genetic mutations and an elevated threat of most cancers [84], [85], [86]. Subsequently, a complete exploration of the electron switch course of not solely aids in elucidating illness mechanisms from their origins but in addition supplies a sturdy theoretical basis and substantial help for early prognosis, prevention, and remedy of those situations.
2D nanomaterials usually possess atomic-level thickness and in depth lateral dimensions, showcasing layered or sheet-like constructions. They primarily embody layered double hydroxides (LDHs) [87], [88], [89], MXenes [90], [91], [92], black phosphorus nanosheets (BP NSs) [93], [94], [95], [96], and metal-organic framework (MOF) NSs [97], [98], [99]. Amongst these, layered hydroxides, notably LDHs, are steel hydroxides composed of two or extra steel components. Their construction consists of major laminates interspersed with overlapping anions and water molecules between the layers. The first layer is fashioned by steel ions and hydroxide ions, leading to a configuration akin to a 2D airplane. The interlayers are crammed with anions and water molecules, which preserve stability with the first laminate by interactions corresponding to hydrogen bonding [87], [100], [101], [102]. Transition steel dichalcogenides are composed of transition steel components (corresponding to molybdenum and tungsten) and sulfur. The final chemical method is often MX2, the place M represents the transition steel component and X denotes the sulfur component [103]. Their construction employs an XMX sandwich layer as the basic structural unit, with transition steel atoms located between two layers of sulfur atoms, thereby forming a sandwich-like configuration. This layered structure endows transition steel dichalcogenides with important software potential within the domains of supplies science and chemistry [104]. The final chemical method of MXene is often represented as MXnTx (the place n = 1, 2, or 3). On this method, M denotes transition steel components corresponding to Ti, Zr, V, Mo, W, Nb, and Cr, X signifies C or N [105] and Tx refers to floor purposeful teams, which generally embrace hydroxyl (-OH), oxygen (-O), fluorine (-F), and chlorine (-Cl) [106], [107]. The crystal construction of MXene consists of a number of layers of atomic sheets, that are obtained by exfoliating the unique MAX part (the place M is a transition steel, A is a major group component corresponding to aluminum or silicon, and X is both C or N) [108]. Inside every MXene layer, transition steel atoms and coordinating components (C or N) type octahedral or pentagonal bipyramidal complexes, which function the structural basis for his or her distinctive properties. The interactions between these layers are weak, which facilitates the separation of single or a number of layers of MXene supplies through solvent stripping, mechanical stripping, or chemical stripping [109], [110], [111]. Structurally, “n” defines the variety of X (C/N) atomic layers sandwiched between transition steel (M) layers throughout the unit cell. This worth originates from the guardian MAX part (Mn+1AXn), the place etching the “A” layer yields the MXene construction [112]. The next “n” worth corresponds to thicker X-M-X stacks and elevated interlayer spacing, considerably influencing MXene’s efficiency [113], [114]. Electrochemically, decrease “n” values (e.g., n = 1) lead to a better surface-to-volume ratio, exposing extra lively websites for ion adsorption and enhancing double-layer capacitance. As an illustration, Ti2CTx (n = 1) reveals a better capacitance (∼500 F/g) in comparison with Ti3C2Tx (n = 2, ∼250 F/g) because of improved accessibility of interlayer areas [115]. Conversely, increased “n” values (e.g., n = 2, 3) introduce extra redox-active transition steel websites (e.g., Ti3+/Ti4+ in Ti3C2Tx), favoring pseudocapacitance however doubtlessly slowing ion diffusion kinetics [116]. Moreover, decrease “n” MXenes facilitate quicker ion transport (e.g., Li+, Na+) because of diminished interlayer resistance and shorter diffusion paths. Nevertheless, thicker X-M-X stacks (increased “n”) present higher mechanical stability throughout biking, albeit at the price of slower kinetics. Moreover, electrical conductivity can be affected: decrease “n” MXenes (e.g., Mo2CTx, ∼104 S/cm) exhibit increased conductivity because of stronger M-M metallic bonding, whereas increased “n” constructions (e.g., n = 2, 3) commerce off some conductivity for improved structural integrity, enhancing long-term biking stability [117]–[118]. This distinctive construction supplies MXenes with a broad vary of potential functions in supercapacitors, batteries, composite supplies, and different fields [119], [120], [121], [122], [123]. BP NSs are structured from phosphorus atoms which might be interconnected by covalent bonds, leading to a folded configuration [124]. The layers of phosphorus are intently related through weaker van der Waals forces. This layered construction renders BP NSs prone to interlayer exfoliation underneath particular situations, corresponding to publicity to mild variations in temperature or electrochemical exfoliation, enabling the manufacturing of single-layer or few-layer BP NSs [125], [126], [127]. This exfoliation course of not solely preserves the inherent properties of BP but in addition imparts new bodily and chemical traits to the ensuing NSs [128], [129]. MOF NSs are layered crystalline supplies composed of natural linkers and steel coordination facilities. Metallic ions typically carry a optimistic cost, whereas natural ligands might impart a unfavourable cost or neutrality, thus forming a secure framework by their interactions [130]. The layered structure of MOFs supplies a big floor space and plentiful porosity, endowing MOF nanosheets (NSs) with in depth software potential in catalysis, adsorption, separation, sensing, and drug supply [131], [132], [133], [134], [135]. By various the categories and proportions of steel ions and natural ligands, in addition to the artificial situations, the construction and features of MOF NSs might be exactly tailor-made to satisfy the particular necessities of varied functions [136]. Subsequently, the forward-looking insights offered on this article intention to boost the understanding of digital metastability kinetics and biomedical fields, thereby fostering additional innovation.
The present literature reveals a shortage of complete discussions relating to the digital metastability of 2D supplies. This evaluate goals to deal with this hole by analyzing how digital switch regulate 2D supplies and exploring their potential functions within the biomedical discipline (Fig. 1). Within the final three to 5 years, there have been important developments within the regulatory methods for 2D nanomaterials. These embrace exact changes to their construction and composition, optimization of their floor chemical properties, and the event of composites with different supplies. These methods haven’t solely deepened our understanding of the basic properties of 2D supplies however have additionally opened up new avenues for his or her software in biomedical remedy. Notably, by facilitating digital switch, 2D nanomaterials display appreciable potential for bettering remedy outcomes. This evaluate additional discusses the particular functions of those regulatory methods in enhancing the efficacy of biomedicine using 2D nanomaterials, offering invaluable references for analysis in associated fields. Moreover, the present challenges are recognized and future analysis instructions are anticipated, aiming to broaden the applying scope of digital switch mechanisms throughout a number of domains. Total, this text summarizes the most recent findings on selling electron switch in regulating 2D nanomaterials and presents insightful views for researchers and practitioners within the fields of supplies science and engineering. This text goals to deepen the understanding of digital switch kinetics in 2D supplies, thereby inspiring extra in-depth analysis and progressive developments. The purpose is to contribute to the sustainable development of biomedical remedy.
